When did people start using "XOXO" to mean "hugs and kisses"?

After receiving a text with “XOXO” as the signoff, one of our patrons was curious about when and where the custom has originated. According to the 1965 book How Did It Begin? by R. Brasch, the X became synonymous with the kiss in the Middle Ages, when people would sign documents with an X and then kiss them to show their sincerity. However, Brasch offered no source for this information and didn’t mention the O, so we sought another source.

Around Valentine’s Day last year, Nadine Epstein wrote an article for the Washington Post on the history of X’s and O’s. She also traced the X back to its use as a signature, as well as its being used as a symbol for Christ (as in X-Mas). The Oxford English Dictionary attributes first use of “XXXXX” in a sign-off to a letter written in 1763, but the X’s there may have stood for “blessings” rather than “kisses.” In 1894, Winston Churchill wrote a letter to his mother that ended with “(Many kisses.) xxx” and a poem from 1893 mentions young women using “little crosses for kisses” in their love letters, so the custom can be traced back at least that far.

While the O is more of a mystery (although some people say it came to represent a hug because it visually resembles one), “XOXO” seems to have been around at least since the 1960s. Epstein even recalls her mother teaching her to end her letters that way.

For more information on letter-writing, Shaun Usher’s Letters of Note collects a variety of correspondence, and Laura Brown’s How to Write Anything gives advice on how to write letters, emails, and announcements. Both are available here at the Newton Falls Public Library.

Why do people say "kick the bucket"?

Most people are familiar with the expression “kicked the bucket,” which is used as a humorous euphemism for “died,” but no one we spoke to was quite sure where it originated.

Common Phrases and Where They Come From by John Mordock and Myron Korach had a few guesses, both fairly gruesome. They say the phrase may have come from the days of execution by hanging, when the executioner would kick the bucket out from under their victim’s feet. It’s also possible that the idiom originated in the slaughterhouse, where livestock would sometimes kick a literal bucket as they died.

For the curious, Marvin Rubenstein’s American English Compendium has more information on English slang, sayings, and acronyms, including a section comparing British and American English.

Where Did the Phrase "Blood Is Thicker Than Water" Come From?

“Where did the phrase ‘blood is thicker than water’ come from?”

You’ve probably heard the saying “blood is thicker than water,” meaning that family ties take precedent over any other relationship, but you may not have realized how long it’s been around. In the Random House Dictionary of Popular Proverbs and Sayings, Gregory Titelman traces its origin back to John Lyndgate’s Troy Book. Lyndgate’s book, a long poem about the history of Troy from its beginnings until the end of the Trojan War, can be found in the Cleveland Public Library’s special collections department, and parts of it can also be found online at archive.org. It was written around 1412 in Middle English, so it’s interesting to have a look at.

Titelman cites a few other early uses of the phrase: A Collection of English Proverbs by John Ray, written in 1670, and Journal of Athabasca Department (which seems to refer to Sir George Simpson’s Journal of Occurrences in the Athabasca Department), written in 1821. Both are available at the Cleveland Public Library, the former in microform and special collections and the latter in the history department. An edition of A Collection of English Proverbs is also available at archive.org.

However, http://www.phrases.org.uk/ claims that “blood is thicker than water” first appeared in Sir Walter Scott’s Guy Mannering; or, The Astrologer, published in 1815. The exact quote where it appeared is "Weel, blude's thicker than water; she's welcome to the cheeses and the hams just the same." 

The Facts on File Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins (3rd Edition) by Robert Hendrickson traces it back even further. According to Hendrickson, the phrase became famous when used by U.S. commodore Josiah Tattnall in 1859. Tattnall came to the aid of the British against the Chinese even though it would violate U.S. neutrality, and gave “blood is thicker than water” as his reason for doing so. However, Hendrickson writes, the phrase is much older than that – it was first recorded in Germany in the 1100s.

Despite whatever you think about family ties, the phrase is scientifically true – blood is indeed thicker than water.

Where Does the Term "Red Herring" Come From?

“Where does the term ‘red herring’ come from?”

A red herring is commonly defined as a piece of information that misleads or distracts from the real situation. You can often find them in mystery stories, added in by the author to keep the reader from unraveling the plot too quickly. Literarydevices.net uses The Da Vinci Code and “The Hound of the Baskervilles” as examples – both contain characters who function as red herrings by behaving so suspiciously that the reader believes them to be the culprit, until the end of the story when they’re revealed to be innocent all along. Red herrings also appear in arguments when a person brings up an unrelated topic in the hopes of turning their audience’s focus away from the actual issue at hand.

According to NTC’S American Idioms Dictionary, the term comes from the practice of using a strong-smelling smoked fish (the aforementioned red herring) to throw hunting dogs off the scent they were following, particularly to keep them from chasing a fox.  However, Michael Quinion’s article on World Wide Words disputes that commonly-held belief. In all his research of fox hunting, the only time he came across anyone using a literal red herring was the mention of hunters dragging one across the ground for dogs to follow so that the horses used in the hunt could grow accustomed to following along with the dogs. Obviously, that doesn’t have much to do with confusing a trail.

Quinion writes that the proper etymology of the phrase has since been traced back to 19^th century journalist William Cobbett. Cobbett claimed that, as a boy, he used a red herring to divert dogs from their quarry. Most likely he had made this story up, but he compared the dogs being distracted from their hunt by the false scent to other journalists being distracted from domestic matters by false news of Napoleon, and the idiom “red herring” was born.

Where Can I Find Authentic Cowboy Slang?

“I’m writing a story about cowboys, and I’d like to incorporate authentic cowboy slang. Could you help?”

While we have “Cassell’s Dictionary of Slang” and “A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles” available in the reference section here at the Newton Falls Public Library, both are more useful for looking up the origins of specific words and phrases. Putting “cowboy slang” into an online search engine brings up quite a few websites, but we had a tough time finding one that cited its sources, and so we weren’t sure how authentic they actually were.

Looking through CLEVNET, however, we found “Cowboy Lingo” and “Western Words: A Dictionary of the Range, Cow Camp, and Trail.” Both are written by Ramon Frederick Adams, a respected Western writer, historian, and bibliographer, and both can be put on hold and sent to any other CLEVNET library.

Here at Newton Falls, we have Candy Moulton’s “The Writer’s Guide to Everyday Life in the Wild West From 1840-1900,” which has a short chapter on language along with a wealth of other information, including sections about the clothes people wore, the food that they ate, and what they did for fun. We also have “The Cowboys” by Time-Life Books and a selection of more general books about the American West, including Geoffrey C. Ward’s “The West: An Illustrated History” and James D. Horan’s “The Great American West.”

Why Do People Knock On Wood?

"Why do people knock on wood?" While all of us here on the Newton Falls Public Library staff are familiar with the expression "knock on wood," typically used after remarking on one's own good fortune, none of us were sure where it originated.

According to A Dictionary of Superstitions, edited by Iona Opie and Moira Tatem, "knock on wood" (or "touch wood," which is the British equivalent of the expression) has been around for a long time. In nineteenth-century England, it was already considered an old superstition.

While there's no hard-and-fast explanation for how the custom came about, Peter Lorie gives a few theories in his book, Superstitions. It may have something to do with the cross of Jesus being made from wood, or it may date back to the ancient Celts who viewed trees as having spiritual significance. According to Lorie, touching wood grounds evil spirits and renders them harmless.

Matt Soniak in his Mental Floss article "Why Do We Knock on Wood?" also traces the superstition back to the Celts. They may have touched trees when asking for a favor or to show gratitude to the spirit inside it. The custom eventually morphed to touching wood after mentioning a streak of good luck. It may also have originated from the belief that loud noises scare away evil spirits, so the sound of knocking is meant to frighten away any lurking nearby.

For more information on superstitions, Ferne Shelton's Pioneer Superstitions is available at the Newton Falls Public Library. Stefan Bechtel's The Good Luck Book and Deborah Aaronson's Luck: The Essential Guide are both available for borrowing through CLEVNET. 

What is a blue moon?

"What is a blue moon?"  All of us here at the Newton Falls Public Library had heard the expression "Once in a blue moon," but none of us were exactly sure what a blue moon was either.

The answer turned out to be a little complicated. Doing an online search for "What is a blue moon?" brought up articles from Weather.com and news.Discovery.com. The most common  definition of a blue moon puts it as the second full moon in a month. However, this is actually a misconception. Going by the original definition, a blue moon is actually the third full moon of a season that has four moons. Typically, there are three moons in a season, and they're referred to as the early moon, the mid-season moon, and the late moon. When there are four, referring to the extra as a "blue moon" allows the late moon to be the fourth and final in the season.

According to "Blue Moon Tuesday, But Not the Kind You Think," written by Michele Berger for Weather.com, and "Blue Moon Rises: What Does It Mean?" written by Joe Rao for news.Discovery.com, the misunderstanding comes from a 1946 article in Sky & Telescope magazine. The article was then referenced on a popular National Public Radio program in 1980, and people have been using both definitions ever since.

Given the mutability of the English language, both definitions are listed as correct in The American Heritage Dictionary, 4th Edition

There's also such a thing as a literally blue moon. According to "Blue Moon Rises," the ash from volcanic eruptions like Mount St. Helens and Krakatoa can cause the moon to take on an azure hue.

What Does "White On Rice" Mean?

"I've heard the expression 'like white on rice,' but I'm not really sure if I'm correct in understanding what it means.  Can you find me the information?"  English has some very unusual phrases that the patrons and staff of the Newton Falls Public Library have found to be interesting.

Our search began in the library's reference collection.  On the cover of Cassell's Dictionary of Slang by Jonathon Green, which is, according to Evening Star Standard  reviewer Jonathan Meades says ". . . a terrific piece of work - learned, entertaining, funny , stimulating." It has 1312 pages of definitions, from  "a n. 1[20C](W.I./Guyn.) a general term for dislike. 2 [1940+] (US) used as euphemism for ARSE" to zweideener n. [late 19C] (Aus./N.Z.) a two-shilling (10p) piece." Our library staff was intrigued it. Some of the words have a great variety of meanings. For example, dog has 34 entries, and 56 definitions.  It was interesting to browse through the book and see that it includes slang from as far back as the 16th century up to modern day.  "Like white on rice," the expression, for which we were searching, came into common usage in 1980 and continues to be used today.  The origins of  the phrase is attributed to US Black.  It is defined as "very closely [rice is white itself]".

What is a Devil Strip?

“I’ve never heard this phrase before, a devil strip. When I asked someone at work, they said it was the strip of land between the sidewalk and the road. I’ve always lived where there are no sidewalks. Why is it named that?” The Newton Falls Public Library staff was familiar with the term, but had no other knowledge about it.

We began our search by searching a variety of books such as the Oxford English Dictionary, TheCassell Dictionary of Slang (1998) by Jonathon Green, and Descriptionary [a Thematic Dictionary] by Marc McCutcheon. Failing to find the information we needed, we extended our search online.

Two sources seemed to fit our patron’s need. UrbanDictionary.com, defined it as the “grassy area between the street and the sidewalk. This term is unique to the Akron, Ohio area.” The second, SummitCountyMyths.com, quoted Dictionary of American Regional English( vol II; 1991) stating that a “Devil Strip (or Devil's Strip) is the grass between the sidewalk and street in the front yard.  The phrase is not unique to Akron but can be heard throughout Northeastern Ohio.  Some versions of the legend hold that it keeps the devil out of your house.  The term is more likely derived from the area being a no-man's land between public and private property

Why Do We Use the Term Czar for Someone Involved in American Government?

“Former Youngstown Mayor Jay Williams just went to Washington D.C. as the Auto Czar. Czar seems to be an odd term to use for someone involved in American government; I thought it was a Russian ruler. When did this become used by our presidents?” Recently, _________ czar has been a phrase that seems to have worked itself into our common language. The Newton Falls Public Library staff found the question to be intriguing.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines czar in three ways: the first is a ruler or monarch; the second is an autocrat; the final one is considered an informal usage: “An appointed official having special powers to regulate or supervise an activity: . . . an energy czar.” [p. 455]. This seems to fulfill part of our patron’s request. 

The aforementioned book was published in 2000, so we know that the term was in use in this context prior to that year. Continuing our search online, we found that the Los Angeles Times' article (March 5, 2009) President Obama's czar system concerns some by Tom Hamburger and Christi Parsons. "President Nixon may have named the first 'czar' with his appointment of William E. Simon to handle the 1970s energy crisis."

According to Czar Struck: Sorting Through the Misconceptions and Understanding the Implications of an Expanding ‘Czar’ Phenomenon by Kathryn J. Murphy, United States Military Academy, "President Franklin D. Roosevelt originated the concept of the policy czar in American politics. Under his administration, Roosevelt created a 'brain trust' of advisors whom he relied upon for policy-related advice . . . In 1942, political cartoonist, Clifford Berryman depicted Roosevelt's advisors as czars . . . The Nixon administration was the first to actually use the term 'czar' with specific reference to the appointment of a 'Drug Czar' in 1971. This was subsequently followed by a highly controversial 'Energy Czar.' (pp. 1-2)" Murphy cites 32 Obama czars as of January 2010. We were not able to locate a difinitive czar listing from United States Government websites. Others, such as Wikipedia, did list the numbers of U.S. Executive Branch czars for each president from Franklin Roosevelt to Barack Obama. According to their listing Ronald Reagan had the least, one.

  

 

Death Comes in Threes

American English is filled with interesting sayings and phrases. The Newton Falls Public Library staff recently had patron wondering where another one came from. “With the passing of Ed McMahon, Farrah Fawcett, and Michael Jackson, I got to wondering where the expression, death comes in threes, originated? Another staff member has family who says a birth, a wedding and a death all come together. This got us to wondering if the expressions are linked.

Our staff searched the phrase, slang, and idioms books in the library’s collection and was unsuccessful in locating either expression, even though there were numerous listings for the words but not those particular phrases. Even McGraw-Hill's Dictionary of American Idioms and Phrasal Verbs by Richard A. Speares, which has many pages containing death, come, and threes, does not have either of the sought after phrases.

Trying to consider other ways of looking at this; what if it is not a phrase but rather a superstition? Pioneer Superstitions by Ferne Shelton has a sampling of oral tales and beliefs. Ohio State Buckeye fans will be happy to know that “If a buckeye is carried in a chest pocket, all enemies become kind to you. If carried in a lower pocket or purse, expect prosperity [p.12].” Superstitions by Peter Lorie refers to death, birth, and marriage as milestones of life and offers interesting superstitions related to each, beautifully illustrated by paintings and photographs. Popular Beliefs and Superstitions: a compendium of American Folklore from the Ohio Collection of Newbell Niles Puckett is where we were partially successful. In volume 2 there is a section titled, Numbers, Counting in the Lore of Death. Most of the notions in this section included references to one death or funeral followed by two more. In the same volume, Love, Courtship, Marriage, etc. as Death Tokens, we found the belief that marriages, births and deaths will come linked together in families.

We were unable to find anything definitive either in print or online as to the origins of these beliefs, each of which deals with three events. One reason which might be considered is the prevalence of human beliefs focused on the number three. In the May 28, 2001 issue of Telephony [telephonyonline.com/mag/telecom_rule_threes/index.html], Jason Meyers writes in his article Rule of Threes [p.84], “Dividing things into threes is universally acceptable. There's Aristotle's principle of the three unities of time, place and action. There's Freud's id, ego and superego. There's the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Three strikes and you're out. Third time's a charm. Bad things happen in threes, and for some reason things are also supposed to be funnier in threes.”

What Does A Rain Check Have To Do With Rain?

“I was at the store the other day to purchase an item on sale. They told me that they would have to give me a rain check. That got me wondering; why do they call it a rain check? It has nothing to do with the weather.” Language, slang, and idiom questions are always intriguing to the Newton Falls Public Library staff. American English is so unique, that the library even has the book American English as a Foreign Language by Sandra Stevens

The only rain in the index of Common Phrases and Where They Come From by Myron Korach in collaboration with John B. Mordock was “raining cats and dogs [p.2-3].” In Teutonic myths, Odin’s dog signifying the wind chases a cat, the rain. When it rained heavily, Odin was believed to be dropping cats and dogs. Readers, who enjoy very short articles, will have fun reading this book of interesting descriptions of common phrases.

A Dictionary of American Idioms by Adam Makkai, M.T. Boatner, and J.E. Gates and McGraw-Hill's Dictionary of American Idioms and Phrasal Verbs by Richard A. Speares define a rain check including the obvious, a free ticket to another outdoor activity in place of one canceled by rain. We still don’t know how that has gotten to apply to merchandise at a store. Cassell's Dictionary of Slang by Jonathon Green had the meanings of many rain words, but not rain checks.

We searched online for the origin of rain check. The site TakeOurWord.com says the term was first used as early as 1884, when the May 26th St. Louis [Missouri] Dispatch story states "The heavy rain yesterday threw a damper over local operations. At each of the parks the audience had to be content with three innings and rain checks.” This site also notes that the phrase became “used metaphorically, and by the 1970s it had spread outside the U.S. and into other English-speaking countries.”

Is It Harebrained or Hairbrained?

“I know this may sound odd. I was telling someone about something that was harebrained; then I wondered where that expression came from and if it is spelled harebrained or hairbrained?” The Newton Falls Public Library staff enjoys answering questions and finds ones about words and language to be intriguing.

According to A Dictionary of American Idioms by Adam Makkai, M.T. Boatner, and J.E. Gates, this thoughtless and foolish meaning word is spelled harebrained. Garner's Modern American Usage by Bryan A. Garner refers those looking under hairbrained to see harebrained; “hairbrained is the common blunder. The misspelling falls just short of being what it attempts to denote” [p. 398].

While we know the spelling, that still doesn’t explain where the expression came from. It seemed logical to try A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles, but it only had three hare words – hare, hare fly and hare-lip sucker (a species of sucker). The thirteen volumes of The Oxford English Dictionary was the resource we should have checked first. There it states that harebrayne was used in a book written in 1550 and denoted someone who had “a brain like a hare’s, or no more brain than a hare; a giddy or reckless person” [v. 5, p. 91]. Around the turn of the 16th century the spelling seems to have changed to harebrain. The website World Wide Words [www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-hai1.htm] also discusses the question of the use ‘hare’ vs. ‘hair’ over the centuries. The author, Michael Quinion ultimately recommends going with harebrained.

Out of curiosity, the staff used a search engine to see how harebrain(ed) appears online. In Minnesota there is a company named Harebrain Inc. which developed an acoustical voice-feedback headset called WhisperPhone. On MySpace.com there is a music group from Oregon,
Ky & HareBrain Media. Master Shortrod Harebrain, a jealous husband, is a character in A Mad World, My Masters, a Jacobean stage play written by Thomas Middleton. This “comedy first performed around 1605 and first published in 1608. (The title is proverbial, and was used by a pamphleteer, Nicholas Breton, in 1603)” [http://www.wikipedia.com/]. You can contact Dave Carter, Founder of Harebrained Schemes, LLC. at www.harebrained.com. Harebrained Films, Holidays, and Shop at Etsy can be found on the Internet as well as harebrained tax schemes at www.irs.gov.